| 1. | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY | 
| 1.1.1. | What are agricultural robots? | 
| 1.1.2. | Current uses of agricultural robots | 
| 1.1.3. | Potential uses of agricultural robots | 
| 1.1.4. | Agriculture has historically been slow to digitise | 
| 1.1.5. | This is beginning to change: companies developing digital and robotic solutions for agriculture | 
| 1.1.6. | The state of agricultural robotics | 
| 1.1.7. | Agricultural robotics: drivers and restraints | 
| 1.1.8. | The trend towards precision agriculture | 
| 1.1.9. | Applications of agricultural robotics | 
| 1.1.10. | Application areas by technology readiness | 
| 1.1.11. | Technology progression towards autonomous, ultra precision de-weeding | 
| 1.1.12. | Variable rate technology for precision seed planting | 
| 1.1.13. | Technology progression towards driverless autonomous large-sized tractors | 
| 1.1.14. | Small autonomous robots vs. tractors | 
| 1.1.15. | Drones are becoming increasingly autonomous | 
| 1.1.16. | Where do drones fit in on a farm? | 
| 1.1.17. | Robotic milking: a blueprint for the wider agricultural robotics industry? | 
| 1.1.18. | Which crop sectors will see agricultural robots first? | 
| 1.1.19. | Agricultural robotics and precision agriculture could lead to a new value chain emerging | 
| 1.1.20. | Development in agricultural robotics remains slow | 
| 1.1.21. | Agricultural robotics, market forecast by robot category | 
| 1.1.22. | Agricultural robotics, market forecast by region | 
| 2. | INTRODUCTION | 
| 2.1. | Challenges facing 21st century agriculture: productivity and labour issues | 
| 2.1.1. | 21st century agriculture is facing major challenges | 
| 2.1.2. | Employment in agriculture is declining | 
| 2.1.3. | As wealth increases, employment in agriculture decreases but agricultural productivity increases | 
| 2.1.4. | Agricultural labour shortages | 
| 2.1.5. | Agricultural labour costs are rising | 
| 2.1.6. | Falling agricultural prices are tightening margins | 
| 2.1.7. | Is agricultural automation part of the solution? | 
| 2.2. | Challenges facing 21st century agriculture: agrochemicals | 
| 2.2.1. | The environmental impact of fertilizers | 
| 2.2.2. | Global pesticide use | 
| 2.2.3. | Trends in global pesticide use | 
| 2.2.4. | Regulations around pesticides are getting harsher | 
| 2.2.5. | The environmental impact of pesticides | 
| 2.2.6. | Agrochemicals are getting more expensive to develop | 
| 2.2.7. | Roundup lawsuits: a potential blow for herbicides | 
| 2.2.8. | Pesticide resistance | 
| 2.2.9. | Is a precision agriculture approach part of the solution? | 
| 2.2.10. | The trend towards precision agriculture | 
| 2.3. | Agricultural robotics | 
| 2.3.1. | What are agricultural robots? | 
| 2.3.2. | Current uses of agricultural robots | 
| 2.3.3. | Potential uses of agricultural robots | 
| 2.3.4. | Agriculture has historically been slow to digitise | 
| 2.3.5. | This is beginning to change: companies developing digital and robotic solutions for agriculture | 
| 2.3.6. | Robotics: replacing or complementing human labour? | 
| 2.3.7. | The state of agricultural robotics | 
| 2.3.8. | The impact of COVID-19 on agriculture | 
| 2.3.9. | Developing agricultural robots: more challenging than other industries? | 
| 2.3.10. | Agricultural robotics: drivers and restraints | 
| 2.3.11. | Levels of autonomy | 
| 2.3.12. | Is full autonomy possible? | 
| 2.3.13. | Autonomous sensor technologies | 
| 2.3.14. | Satellite positioning | 
| 2.3.15. | Electric vs non-electric agricultural robots | 
| 2.3.16. | How large is the average farm? | 
| 3. | AGRICULTURAL ROBOTICS: KEY APPLICATION AREAS | 
| 3.1.1. | Applications of agricultural robotics | 
| 3.1.2. | Application areas by technology readiness | 
| 3.2. | Weed and pest control | 
| 3.2.1. | Most commercial field robots are used for weeding | 
| 3.2.2. | From manned, broadcast spraying towards autonomous precision weeding | 
| 3.2.3. | Technology progression towards autonomous, ultra precision de-weeding | 
| 3.2.4. | Oz by Naïo Technologies | 
| 3.2.5. | Dino by Naïo Technologies | 
| 3.2.6. | Autonomous weeding robots by Vitirover | 
| 3.2.7. | Anatis by Carré | 
| 3.2.8. | Challenges in robotic weeding | 
| 3.2.9. | A comparison of different weeding methods | 
| 3.2.10. | "Smart weeding" vs. traditional weeding | 
| 3.2.11. | GEN-2 by Ekobot | 
| 3.2.12. | Weed Whacker by Odd.Bot | 
| 3.2.13. | Titan FT-35 by Roush and FarmWise | 
| 3.2.14. | Robot One by Pixelfarming Robotics | 
| 3.2.15. | Precision spraying | 
| 3.2.16. | "Green-on-green" vs. "green-on-brown" | 
| 3.2.17. | John Deere's acquisition of Blue River Technology | 
| 3.2.18. | Blue River Technology (John Deere): "See and Spray" | 
| 3.2.19. | Avo by ecoRobotix | 
| 3.2.20. | Arbus 4000 JAV by Jacto | 
| 3.2.21. | AX-1 by Kilter | 
| 3.2.22. | Novel methods for weed removal | 
| 3.2.23. | Dick by Small Robot Company | 
| 3.2.24. | Robotic pest control: beyond weeds | 
| 3.2.25. | Bug Vacuum by Agrobot | 
| 3.3. | Robotic seeding | 
| 3.3.1. | Automating seeding | 
| 3.3.2. | Variable rate technology for precision seed planting | 
| 3.3.3. | FD20 by FarmDroid | 
| 3.3.4. | Genesis by FarmBot | 
| 3.4. | Fully autonomous tractors | 
| 3.4.1. | Small robots or big tractors? | 
| 3.4.2. | Technology progression towards driverless autonomous large-sized tractors | 
| 3.4.3. | Tractor guidance and autosteer technology for large tractors | 
| 3.4.4. | Tractor autosteer - a first step towards autonomy | 
| 3.4.5. | Semi-autonomous "follow-me" tractors | 
| 3.4.6. | EOX-175 by H2Trac | 
| 3.4.7. | Fully autonomous driverless tractors | 
| 3.4.8. | Autonomous tractor concepts developed by the major tractor companies | 
| 3.4.9. | When will fully autonomous tractors be ready? | 
| 3.4.10. | Monarch Tractor | 
| 3.4.11. | eTrac by Farmertronics | 
| 3.4.12. | AgBot by AgXeed | 
| 3.4.13. | Full automation of existing tractors | 
| 3.5. | Autonomous implement carriers and platform robots | 
| 3.5.1. | Small autonomous robots vs. tractors | 
| 3.5.2. | Land Care Robot by Directed Machines | 
| 3.5.3. | RoamIO by Korechi | 
| 3.5.4. | SwarmBot 5 by SwarmFarm Robotics | 
| 3.5.5. | Custom or standard implements? | 
| 3.5.6. | Dot by Raven Industries | 
| 3.5.7. | Robotti 150D by Agrointelli | 
| 3.5.8. | Over-the-row vineyard robots | 
| 3.5.9. | Bakus by VitiBot | 
| 3.5.10. | Ted by Naïo Technologies | 
| 3.5.11. | Trektor by SITIA | 
| 3.5.12. | A comparison of over-the-row vineyard robots | 
| 3.5.13. | Agricultural sprayer by Hubei Sense Intelligence Technology Co. | 
| 3.5.14. | A vision of the future? The Fendt MARS project | 
| 3.6. | Robotic fresh fruit and vegetable harvesting | 
| 3.6.1. | Row crop and non-fresh fruit harvesting is largely mechanised | 
| 3.6.2. | Fresh fruit picking remains largely manual | 
| 3.6.3. | Strawberries and apples: the most popular targets | 
| 3.6.4. | Robotic harvesting: apples | 
| 3.6.5. | FFRobot apple harvester by FFRobotics | 
| 3.6.6. | Robotic harvesting: strawberries | 
| 3.6.7. | A comparison of strawberry harvesting robot developers | 
| 3.6.8. | Strawberry picking robots in advanced development | 
| 3.6.9. | Harvester B7 by Harvest CROO Robotics | 
| 3.6.10. | Rubion by Octinion | 
| 3.6.11. | Robotic harvesting: asparagus | 
| 3.6.12. | Robotic asparagus harvesting projects | 
| 3.6.13. | Sparter by Cerescon | 
| 3.6.14. | Robotic harvesting in development for other crops | 
| 3.6.15. | Challenges in developing fruit picking robots | 
| 3.7. | Agricultural drones | 
| 3.7.1. | Drones: application pipeline | 
| 3.7.2. | Agricultural drones | 
| 3.7.3. | Commercially available agricultural drones | 
| 3.7.4. | Agricultural drones: key considerations | 
| 3.7.5. | Aerial imaging in farming | 
| 3.7.6. | Drones vs. satellites vs. aeroplanes | 
| 3.7.7. | Where does drone spraying have regulatory approval? | 
| 3.7.8. | Commercially available spraying drones | 
| 3.7.9. | Drones are becoming increasingly autonomous | 
| 3.7.10. | Agricultural drones: company landscape | 
| 3.7.11. | Potential software opportunities in agricultural drones | 
| 3.7.12. | Where do drones fit in on a farm? | 
| 3.7.13. | Fruit picking drones by Tevel Aerobotics Technologies | 
| 3.7.14. | CropHopper by HayBeeSee | 
| 3.8. | Milking robots and other robotic dairy farming | 
| 3.8.1. | Global trends and averages for dairy farm sizes | 
| 3.8.2. | Global number and distribution of dairy cows by territory | 
| 3.8.3. | Robotic (automatic) milking | 
| 3.8.4. | Robotic milking is becoming increasingly widespread | 
| 3.8.5. | Robotic milking: a blueprint for the wider agricultural robotics industry? | 
| 3.8.6. | Robotic milking: advantages and disadvantages | 
| 3.8.7. | Robotic milking: key players | 
| 3.8.8. | Robotic feed pushers | 
| 3.9. | Other applications | 
| 3.9.1. | PothaFacile by Pietro Rivi | 
| 3.9.2. | Tom by Small Robot Company | 
| 3.9.3. | Rock Picker by TerraClear | 
| 4. | ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES | 
| 4.1. | Positioning technologies: RTK-GPS, LiDAR, and others | 
| 4.1.1. | Navigation for autonomous agricultural robots | 
| 4.1.2. | Navigation in agricultural environments | 
| 4.1.3. | The challenge of safe positioning | 
| 4.1.4. | Position accuracy vs. position integrity | 
| 4.1.5. | Achieving safe positioning | 
| 4.1.6. | Fixposition AG | 
| 4.1.7. | Agreenculture | 
| 4.1.8. | GPS as a tool for navigation | 
| 4.1.9. | RTK systems: operation, performance and value chain | 
| 4.1.10. | RTK systems for use in agriculture: value chain | 
| 4.1.11. | Challenges of RTK-GPS | 
| 4.1.12. | LiDAR | 
| 4.1.13. | LiDAR, Radar, camera & ultrasonic sensors: comparison | 
| 4.1.14. | Time of flight (TOF) LiDAR: Spatial Data Analysis | 
| 4.1.15. | Performance comparison of different LiDARs on the market or in development | 
| 4.1.16. | Assessing the suitability of different LiDAR for agricultural robotic applications | 
| 4.2. | Hyperspectral imaging | 
| 4.2.1. | Introduction to hyperspectral imaging | 
| 4.2.2. | Multiple methods to acquire a hyperspectral data-cube | 
| 4.2.3. | Line-scan hyperspectral camera design | 
| 4.2.4. | Snapshot hyperspectral imaging | 
| 4.2.5. | Illumination for hyperspectral imaging | 
| 4.2.6. | Hyperspectral imaging as a development of multispectral imaging | 
| 4.2.7. | Trade-offs between hyperspectral and multispectral imaging | 
| 4.2.8. | Hyperspectral imaging and precision agriculture | 
| 4.2.9. | Hyperspectral imaging from UAVs (drones) | 
| 4.2.10. | Satellite imaging with hyperspectral cameras | 
| 4.2.11. | Gamaya: Hyperspectral imaging for agricultural analysis | 
| 4.2.12. | Supplier overview: Hyperspectral imaging | 
| 4.3. | Artificial intelligence (AI) | 
| 4.3.1. | What is Artificial Intelligence? | 
| 4.3.2. | Key AI methods | 
| 4.3.3. | Main deep learning (DL) approaches | 
| 4.3.4. | DL makes automated image recognition possible | 
| 4.3.5. | Image recognition AI is based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) | 
| 4.3.6. | Workings of CNNs: How are images processed? | 
| 4.3.7. | Workings of CNNs: An additional example | 
| 4.3.8. | Potential applications of machine learning in agriculture | 
| 4.3.9. | AI for weed recognition | 
| 4.3.10. | The challenge of image analysis | 
| 4.3.11. | Deepening the neural network to increase accuracy | 
| 4.3.12. | Deep learning: how accurate is "accurate enough"? | 
| 4.3.13. | AI in agricultural robotics case study - ecoRobotix: deep learning for crop and weed recognition | 
| 4.3.14. | AI in agricultural robotics case study - ecoRobotix: autonomous mobility | 
| 4.4. | End effectors and gripper technology | 
| 4.4.1. | End effector technology for fruit harvesting | 
| 4.4.2. | Designing a harvesting end effector | 
| 4.4.3. | End effectors for apple harvesting | 
| 4.4.4. | End effectors for tomato harvesting | 
| 4.4.5. | End effectors for cucumber harvesting | 
| 4.4.6. | End effectors for pepper (capsicum) harvesting | 
| 4.5. | Precision spraying technology | 
| 4.5.1. | What is precision spraying? | 
| 4.5.2. | Methods of spray control | 
| 4.5.3. | Pulse width modulation (PWM) spraying | 
| 5. | MARKET FACTORS | 
| 5.1. | Market factors and business model considerations | 
| 5.1.1. | Which crop sectors will see agricultural robots first? | 
| 5.1.2. | Agricultural robotics and precision agriculture could lead to a new value chain emerging | 
| 5.1.3. | Development in agricultural robotics remains slow | 
| 5.1.4. | Revenues of major agricultural equipment suppliers | 
| 5.1.5. | Robotics-as-a-service (RaaS) vs. equipment sales | 
| 5.1.6. | Developing a successful business model | 
| 5.1.7. | Investment strategies in agricultural robotics | 
| 5.2. | Key market challenges in agricultural robotics | 
| 5.2.1. | The cost of agricultural robots | 
| 5.2.2. | IT infrastructure | 
| 5.2.3. | Ownership and management of digital data | 
| 5.2.4. | Adoption of robotics technology on farms | 
| 6. | FORECASTS | 
| 6.1. | Agricultural robotics, market forecast by robot category | 
| 6.2. | Agricultural robotics, market forecast by robot category: data tables | 
| 6.3. | Agricultural robotics, market forecast by region | 
| 6.4. | Agricultural robotics, market forecast by region: data tables | 
| 6.5. | Milking robots, market forecast by region | 
| 6.6. | Weeding robots and seeding robots, market forecast by region | 
| 6.7. | Autonomous tractors and implement carrying robots, market forecast by region | 
| 6.8. | Robots for fresh fruit and vegetable harvesting, market forecast by region | 
| 6.9. | Agricultural drones, market forecast by region |